The Greatest Catastrophe Humanity Ever Witnessed: The Mongol Destruction of Khwarazm

Genghis Khan burned entire civilizations to find one man. That man never stopped fighting back

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Introduction

In the very early 12th century, the cities of Central and Western Asia were experiencing their golden age of science, art, and commerce. Each of them — Samarkand, Bukhara, Gurganj, Nishapur, and Balkh — resembled ornate fairy-tale cities emerging from beyond the Caucasus Mountains, vying with one another in beauty and aesthetics. In those days, a great power reigned over the region, while other factions also sought to exert influence over the administration of these lands.

This great power was the Khwarazm Shahs.

The Khwarazmian Empire

The Khwarazm Shahs, whose great-grandfathers were appointed governors by the Seljuks to the region east of the Caspian Sea — known as Khwarazm since ancient times — were the third dynasty to rule this region under that name. Following the defeat of Seljuk Sultan Sanjar by the Mongol-origin Karakhitays and the subsequent disintegration of the Seljuks, the Khwarazm Shahs, capitalizing on the resulting power vacuum in the region, swiftly established a vast empire spanning a broad geography from present-day Iran to Afghanistan, and from India to the heart of Turkestan.

The Khwarazm Shahs were engaged in conflict with the Kara-Khitans, the very people who had caused the collapse of the Seljuks in the region and who were referred to in the Orkhon Inscriptions as “the Turkic enemy tribe of the East.” The Muslim Ghurids, who had established themselves in the region known as Gur in central Afghanistan and had pushed the Ghaznavids off the historical stage, also posed a significant threat to them from the south.

In the west, the Abbasid caliph and various other Muslim emirs, both large and small, occasionally engaged the Khwarazm Shahs in power struggles. However, the days were pregnant with a new superpower that would first upend the region and later the entire world. Temüjin, who lost his father at a very young age and endured a difficult youth, had united the Mongols and proclaimed himself the Great Khan under the name “Genghis,” meaning “strong and powerful.” He later incorporated various large nomadic groups such as the Turkic Uighurs and the Mongol Kara-Khitans into his alliance and launched campaigns against China.

Alâeddin Mohammad

During the same period, at the head of the Khwarazm Shahs, there was Alâeddin Muhammad, who chose the titles “Sencer” — in reference to the Seljuk sultan — and “Iskender-i Sani” — in reference to the Macedonian king whose name has become legendary. In his youth, Alâeddin Muhammad had studied under the renowned Islamic scholar Fahreddin Razi. He ascended the throne upon the death of his father, Tekish, achieved significant success in his struggle against the Gurids, and acquired vast territories. While Alâeddin managed to secure only limited gains through various conflicts with the Kara Khitans, he was ultimately rid of this formidable rival by the Mongols.

With the expansion of their borders, the two neighboring rulers initially held skeptical and incomplete views of one another. This was because both states had been established and expanded in a very short period of time. This situation prevented the rivals from conducting in-depth analyses of one another.

In any case, Alâeddin Muhammad did not want a major power in the region that could rival him. In fact, he had the goal of seizing the Chinese territories recently conquered by the Mongols. For Genghis, however, trade was the priority. He sought to open a trade corridor to the west. Relations between the two states initially proceeded positively, with the exception of a few isolated conflicts.

An embassy on behalf of the Khwarazm Shahs reached Genghis Khan in 1215, while he was in China. The primary purpose of this delegation was to observe Mongol power and activities.

Genghis Khan told the delegation that he was the sultan of the East and recognized Alaeddin Muhammad as the sultan of the West. He knew that the steppes he ruled were underdeveloped in terms of production, whereas the Khwarazmian cities were rich in craftsmen and abundant in goods, and that trade with these cities was vital for his own state. For this reason, Genghis presented various commercial demands to the Khwarazmian diplomatic delegation.

Shortly thereafter, a Mongol diplomatic delegation also arrived in Gürgenç, the capital of the Khwarazmians. Following this delegation, a 450-person trade caravan composed of Muslim merchants was dispatched from Mongol territory to Khwarazmian lands.

Thus began the series of events that the historian Ibn al-Athir described as “the greatest catastrophe humanity has ever witnessed.” Although the Khwarazmian ruler Alaeddin Muhammad received the diplomatic delegation cordially, he could not suppress his suspicions regarding the Mongols. Some historians report that he offered the Muslims in the diplomatic delegation a proposal to act as spies, which was either rejected or deflected by the envoys.

Nevertheless, the Mongol diplomatic delegation was sent back after signing trade agreements and receiving favorable treatment.

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The Otrar Disaster

Before the delegation had even left the lands of the Khwarazm Shahs, the first trade caravan sent by Genghis Khan had reached Otrar, a small town on the Khwarazm border. Otrar was governed by a governor referred to in the sources as Gayir Khan or Inalcik. Inalcik had the merchants who arrived in the town arrested on charges of espionage and confiscated their goods.

Assumed to have acted with the ruler’s knowledge, İnalcık subsequently massacred the entire caravan — with the exception of a camel driver who fled back to Genghis. He also sent the seized trade goods to the capital. The governor had no reasonable justification for this massacre, which went down in history as the “Otrar Massacre,” nor were the excuses put forward sufficient to legitimize the annihilation of a large caravan. Sultan Alâeddin Muhammad and Governor İnalcık had failed to foresee the consequences of their actions.

Upon learning of the incident, Genghis Khan sent an embassy to Alâeddin to protest the situation and demanded the governor’s surrender. Sultan Alâeddin, who had the envoy killed, sent the beards of the envoy’s attendants to Genghis Khan as a diplomatic insult. Although the Mongols had no intention of launching a military campaign westward, Sultan Alâeddin’s stance compelled them to undertake such an action. Or, at the very least, it caused them to bring forward any latent intentions they might have had.

In response to the Otrar incident, Genghis Khan assembled an army of between 150,000 and 200,000 men. This army was composed of various Mongol and Turkic tribes. As he had done during his previous campaign in China, he prostrated himself on the ground and prayed for three days, beseeching the heavens for vengeance and asking for help. His army was fully loyal to his authority and was extremely well-organized. The situation was different on Alâeddin Muhammad’s side.

His mother, Türkan, a Kipchak Turk, did not love him. Alâeddin’s execution of a dervish from the order of Necmeddin al-Kubra — one of Gürgenç’s renowned Sufis — and his engagement in a military-political conflict against the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad had intensified opposition against him. Taking full advantage of this, Türkan Hatun gained significant influence over her son.

Alâeddin Muhammad did not trust his commanders, most of whom were from his mother’s clan. For this reason, he divided them into various groups and dispersed them among the cities surrounding the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers, historically known as Maveraunnehir. He intended to establish a defensive line there.

The most significant military buildup, given its importance, was established in the city of Samarkand. The Khwarazmian army consisted of various Turkic tribes and some local elements. The army also included elephants. Although Alâeddin collected taxes from the people three times for various defensive measures, he did not use this money and, in the end, retreated with his entourage to the city of Balkh, far behind the defensive line.

In the eyes of historians, this defensive strategy was actually the worst possible tactic under those circumstances.

The Mongol armies arrived at the outskirts of Otrar in September 1219. Genghis Khan divided his forces into three groups here.

He left his sons Ögedei and Chagatai with several regiments of soldiers in front of Otrar. He sent his eldest son, Jochi, with five thousand men northward along the Syr Darya River, also known as the Sir Darya. He himself marched toward Bukhara with the remaining troops.

Because Genghis Khan’s entourage included Muslim advisors, Muslim merchants familiar with the region, and others, the army was able to advance very quickly and safely. These Muslim guides used their critical intelligence to thwart the Khwarazm Shahs’ various maneuvers — such as redirecting river waters against their enemies through canals, a traditional tactic — by exploiting the local conditions.

Genghis had sent special intelligence agents into Khwarezmian territory for propaganda purposes. Using every means of literature, they warned the local population about Genghis. They described the mountains he had built in China from the bones and skulls of those who resisted him.

As a result, some small settlements surrendered to the Mongols of their own accord, while others fled rapidly toward the west.In the eyes of historians, this defensive strategy was actually the worst possible tactic under those circumstances.

The Mongol armies arrived at the outskirts of Otrar in September 1219. Genghis Khan divided his forces into three groups here.

He left his sons Ögedei and Chagatai with several regiments of soldiers in front of Otrar. He sent his eldest son, Jochi, with five thousand men northward along the Syr Darya River, also known as the Sir Darya. He himself marched toward Bukhara with the remaining troops.

Because Genghis Khan’s entourage included Muslim advisors, Muslim merchants familiar with the region, and others, the army was able to advance very quickly and safely. These Muslim guides used their critical intelligence to thwart the Khwarazm Shahs’ various maneuvers — such as redirecting river waters against their enemies through canals, a traditional tactic — by exploiting the local conditions.

Genghis had sent special intelligence agents into Khwarezmian territory for propaganda purposes. Using every means of literature, they warned the local population about Genghis. They described the mountains he had built in China from the bones and skulls of those who resisted him.

As a result, some small settlements surrendered to the Mongols of their own accord, while others fled rapidly toward the west.

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The Burning of Bukhara

Genghis Khan arrived at the gates of Bukhara in January 1220. A Khwarazmian army of 30,000 men was stationed in the city. The Mongol army was vastly superior in numbers. It also included siege equipment that Genghis Khan had brought from China tools never before seen in this part of Asia.

The Khwarazmian army in Bukhara decided to abandon the city. In an attempted breakout, only a very small unit managed to escape the Mongols and survive. When the city was abandoned by its garrison, the inhabitants decided to surrender it to the Mongols. On February 16, 1220, the Mongols entered Bukhara and slaughtered the remaining soldiers.

Genghis Khan was entering such a large settlement for the first time in person. The people were forced to abandon their homes. The abandoned homes were looted. A fire that broke out during the looting reduced the city largely to ashes. In Bukhara, only the Great Mosque and a few brick structures remained standing.

Those who resisted — especially the clergy — and those who refused to leave their homes were either killed or taken captive. A century after this destruction, the famous traveler Ibn Battuta, upon visiting Bukhara, would record the following in history: “With the exception of a small portion of the mosques, madrasas, and markets, the rest has been completely leveled and remains in ruins. There is no scholar left in the city to whom one might ask a question.”

The Surrender of Samarkand to Genghis Khan

After Bukhara, Genghis Khan turned his attention to Samarkand. With its wealth, vast and fertile lands, and beautiful highlands, Samarkand was a prize that would whet the appetite of any ruler. In March of that same year, he established his headquarters outside the city. Years later, Timur would also set up camp at the same spot when he launched another invasion. Meanwhile, his sons, who had captured Otrar, joined him.

Otrar had resisted for five months and ultimately met the same fate as Bukhara. Governor İnalcık surrendered to Genghis. Later, he was brutally murdered on Genghis Khan’s orders. There was a large Khwarazmian army in Samarkand. Therefore, to intimidate the enemy, the Mongols gathered the prisoners they had brought from Otrar, Bukhara, and other small settlements under their banners, dressing them in their own uniforms. This was a deceptive maneuver intended to make their numbers appear much larger. Although the military garrison in the city launched a sortie, the attempt ended in utter disaster. Tens of thousands of Khwarazmian soldiers were slaughtered.

The Khwarazmian sultan was far away, and the only thing holding the army together was money. Yet facing them was a resolute and powerful khan, backed by a massive, disciplined army that trusted him. Ultimately, on the fifth day of the siege, Samarkand decided to surrender. The Mongols who entered the city treated the Samarkand ulema — who surrendered without resistance, unlike the resisting Bukhara ulema — and those under their protection with kindness.

The Mongols’ general policy was to treat clergy who did not resist them well, regardless of their religion. Genghis Khan’s soldiers first demolished the city walls. Then the people were driven from their homes and the city was plundered. A thousand soldiers who had taken refuge in a newly built mosque within the Samarkand citadel were killed, and the mosque was burned down.

Thirty thousand people who had defected to the Mongol side while serving in the Khwarazmian army were also executed by Genghis Khan’s order for betraying their own sultan. Artisans were taken captive and held in the army for various tasks. After this massacre, only a quarter of the city’s population remained. Ibn Battuta, whose journey also took him to Samarkand, observed approximately a century later that the city bore the signs of an extraordinary rebirth and prosperity.

In Pursuit of Alâeddin, Genghis Khan’s Son-in-Law

After the capture of Samarkand, Genghis Khan withdrew to the mountains near the city, which were home to fertile pastures, to rest his army. There, he dispatched his son-in-law Tokutshar, accompanied by three regiments of soldiers, to capture Alâeddin Muhammad. Capturing the sultan would not only completely crush the people’s resistance, but also avenge Otrar and put an end to any potential counteroffensive before it began. The regiments were ordered to set out without delay and swiftly capture Sultan Alâeddin, without harming any city or settlement along their route.

Alâeddin Muhammad learned of Samarkand’s fall and the approaching Mongol forces while in Balkh. The sultan, moving swiftly westward with his entourage, sent his treasury to the fortress of Ardahan, renowned for its strength. He was unable to capitalize on the opportunity to raise a large army due to his deteriorating morale. The pursuit lasted nine months.

The sultan managed to evade the Mongols in the city of Hamadan. Having largely lost his ability to make sound decisions, Alâeddin took refuge with his entourage on an island near the port of Abaskun on the shores of the Caspian Sea. There, he contracted a chronic lung infection. A few days before his death, he received news that his mother had been captured by the Mongols. Türkan Hatun, who had taken refuge in a castle in Khwarezm, was captured and sent to Mongol territory. Her sons had been killed, while her daughters and servants were distributed among various Mongol nobles by Genghis Khan. Within a few days of receiving this news, Sultan Alâeddin, too, fell victim to the Angel of Death a force far more merciless and unyielding than the Mongol horsemen.

His life’s journey, which had begun with victories and vast territorial gains, had come to an extremely unfortunate end. The pride stemming from the easily conquered lands a pride reflected even in the titles he used along with the hostility toward him from his mother, key commanders, and the ulema, and his aggressive stance that left no friendly state in his vicinity, had driven the sultan to this tragic fate. Alâeddin’s greatest victory against the Mongols had been his own escape from their hands. However, the fire of vengeance burning within Genghis Khan would only be extinguished by the burning of Alâeddin Muhammad’s remains, which were later recovered. Alâeddin Muhammad left behind not only his bones but also a son who would keep the Mongols occupied for a long time. He was Prince Celaleddin.

Celaleddin Harizm Shah

The prince, whose real name was Mengübirtî, had taken the title Celaleddin in accordance with the common practice of the time. Sources provide very little information about Celaleddin’s early childhood and youth; his mother was an Indian concubine. Well-educated, he had been appointed as ruler of the newly conquered Gur territories by his father, Alâeddin, who loved him dearly. However, his father, out of affection for his son, reversed this decision and kept him in the capital.

Celaleddin incurred the displeasure of his grandmother, Türkan Hatun, to the same extent as he had received his father’s favor. Türkan Hatun favored Uzlagşah who, like her, had a Kipchak mother over Celaleddin, whose mother was an Indian concubine. Alâeddin Muhammad was initially compelled to declare Uzlagşah as the heir apparent.

However, upon learning while in exile on the island that his mother Türkan had been taken captive, he renounced this decision shortly before his death. With no further obstacles remaining, he carried out his true intention and declared Celâleddin his legitimate heir. Following his father’s death, Celâleddin gathered his brothers and entourage and set out for Gürgenç. Along the way, he received great support from the people. Upon reaching the capital, Celâleddin proclaimed himself sultan there.

Although his brother Uzlagshah initially accepted this situation, he turned against Jalal al-Din under pressure from the commanders in the city who supported him.

These commanders were of the same maternal lineage as Uzlagshah. Uzlagshah, along with his brother Ak-shah, plotted an assassination attempt against Celaleddin. Celaleddin, who had been forewarned of the situation, retreated to the mountains of Khorasan with Timur Melik — a figure whose name is still the subject of legends even in modern times due to his heroic battles against the Mongols.

Upon learning of the Mongols’ approach, his brothers set out for Khorasan three days later to pursue him. Before the two brothers and their entourage could reach Celaleddin, they were slaughtered along the way by soldiers dispatched by Genghis Khan to utterly destroy the Khwarazmian dynasty. The heads of the two brothers were impaled on spears and paraded from city to city. Meanwhile, Jalal al-Din had slaughtered a 700-strong Mongol unit he encountered along the way, seizing a substantial amount of booty.

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The Siege of the Capital Gurgench

In December 1220, Mongol armies laid siege to the capital, Gurgench. The city’s inhabitants acted in unison because the ruling family had left the city and there was no one left to contest the throne. Genghis Khan’s sons, Chagatai and Ögedei, along with their brother Chuchi, who joined them from the north, besieged the legendary capital of the Khwarazm Shahs, Gürgenç, for five months with a Mongol army numbering in the hundreds of thousands.

The city inflicted heavy losses on the Mongols. Various disputes arose among the Mongol princes. However, after a fierce siege, the city was razed to the ground. Artisans were taken captive to be transported to Mongol territories. It is believed that these artisans were the ancestors of the Dungans living in China today.

Women and young children in Gürgenç were taken captive. Everyone else was slaughtered. The famous Sufi mystic Necmeddin-i Kübra also resisted alongside his fellow citizens and was martyred.

The city was burned, and due to the destruction of the canals, it was submerged in water. The Mongols would later rebuild the city because of its strategic location and economic importance. Since the city was later relocated to a new settlement, it would come to be known by the name “Kohne,” meaning “abandoned.”

The scene was truly horrific… A vast expanse of land, stretching from Transoxiana into the heart of Turkestan and from Iran to the borders of Iraq, was being trampled by small Mongol horses. Hundreds of thousands of people had been slaughtered, and hundreds of thousands more had been displaced. Many cities lay in ruins, and many others had vanished from the pages of history, never to be rebuilt. Science, art, and wisdom were either on the verge of disappearing along with the slain scholars, or had set out on a journey westward — toward what was believed to be safe from the Mongol horsemen — via caravans.

The military, political, and intellectual center of the Islamic world had shifted westward, to Anatolia. This invasion had caused a level of destruction in the collective unconscious of the Turkic-Muslim world that would take many years to repair. The Mongols had carried out all of this to achieve a swift and decisive outcome from their campaigns. However, Jalal al-Din Khwarazm-Shah would thwart the Mongols’ ambitions to achieve a swift conclusion to their invasion through the struggle he undertook.

After passing through Khorasan to Nishapur, Jalal al-Din set out for the city of Ghazni. The Sultan, who had been gathering troops along the way — having not yet had the opportunity to ascend the throne — was greeted with great joy in Ghazni. There, with the Harzem Shah and Gur emirs who joined him, his army swelled to 60,000 men.

Meanwhile, finding the open fields of the vast terrain unguarded, the Mongol soldiers were engaged in looting and plundering in groups of varying sizes. Upon learning that two Mongol commanders were besieging a nearby fortress, Jalal al-Din launched a surprise attack and routed this Mongol force. Upon receiving news of the defeat while besieging another nearby fortress, Genghis Khan dispatched a large army under the command of Shigi Kutugu Noyan against Jalal al-Din. The battle, which lasted two days at a place called Pervan north of the city of Kabul during which the Mongols attempted various tricks, such as placing lifeless mannequins on horses to make themselves appear more numerous to the enemy ended in favor of the Khwarazm Shahs thanks to Celaleddin’s determination and resolute stance.

News of the Mongols’ defeat spread rapidly throughout Khwarazm. Rebellions broke out in many cities. Genghis Khan, furious at the situation, ordered the rebellions to be crushed with force and personally marched against Jalal al-Din with his army.

After the victory, a dispute over the spoils of war broke out among Jalal al-Din’s commanders. As a result of this conflict, some of his soldiers deserted him. Realizing he could not stand up to Genghis under these circumstances, Jalal al-Din Khwarazm-Shah decided to cross the Indus River and seek refuge in Indian territory. Genghis, who first arrived at Pervan with his army, demonstrated the tactical errors made by his defeated soldiers and commanders there. He then entered the city of Ghazni.

Upon learning that Jalal al-Din had left the city 15 days earlier, Genghis Khan had the defenseless city plundered and burned. The remains of Mahmud, the famous sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, were also exhumed from his tomb and burned. This act reflected elements of Mongol belief and was also seen as a display of dominance. Later, the Mongols, who had set out in pursuit of Celaleddin, caught up with the Khwarazmian army along the banks of the Indus River and besieged it.

On November 24, 1221, a fierce battle took place between the two opposing armies. The central division of the Khwarazmian army, commanded by Celaleddin, routed the Mongol army. Even Genghis Khan and his entourage began preparing to flee. However, the entry of 10,000 Mongol cavalrymen, who had been holding in reserve, onto the battlefield changed the course of the battle.

Celaleddin’s entire entourage — his family, his mother, and his children — drowned in the river. However, he himself managed to cross to the opposite bank alive. Sources report that Genghis Khan, pointing to Jalal al-Din Khwarazm-Shah to his sons and commanders, said, “Every father needs such a brave son.” Genghis sent his son Chagatai to bring Jalal al-Din back alive and returned to Ghazni. Sultan Jalal al-Din, meanwhile, moved toward the interior of India.

Chagatai would eventually abandon the pursuit and return. At that time, the northern regions of India were under the rule of Turkic commanders. The Sultan of Delhi, Shamsuddin Il-tutmis, would later unite these commanders under his authority. Celaleddin’s flight to India, stripped of his entire entourage and in a state of utter physical and spiritual ruin, had whetted the appetites of local rulers.

Celaleddin routed numerous units advancing against him with his 500 cavalrymen. These victories further enhanced his reputation. Thousands of soldiers from the surrounding areas came to join his ranks. Celaleddin Harizm Shah’s growing power alarmed both the Mongols and the Delhi Sultanate.

Although Genghis Khan sent an army against Celaleddin, the sultan, fearing a direct confrontation with this force, advanced into the interior of Delhi. Upon learning that Şemsettin İl-tutmuş had gathered a large army there, Celaleddin left a deputy in his place and, following the advice of the emirs who had joined him from the vicinity of Iran, turned his course westward.

Genghis Khan, too, had now set out toward Mongolia after all these exhausting campaigns.

Celaleddin’s Raid on His Brother Giyaseddin

Giyaseddin Pirshah, Celaleddin’s half-brother from another mother, ruled over the lands of Azerbaijan. Celaleddin had learned through various channels of the loyalty and affection that his brother’s commanders and emirs held for him. He had neither a fortress to take refuge in nor a city to call home. By pursuing a cunning strategy against his brother, Celâleddin would once again turn his ill fortune around.

The stateless sultan wrote various letters, calling upon the local lords, both great and small, to gather under his banner. He wrote a letter to his brother, stating that he had lost everything and that the world had become an unbearable place for him. Meanwhile, through his men, he sent valuable rings to the commanders of his brother Giyaseddin.

Many of these commanders accepted the rings and pledged allegiance to Celaleddin. A small number, however, hastily reported the matter to Giyaseddin. However, Gıyâseddin was too late to act. Celâleddin, along with the emirs who had joined him, launched a night raid and attacked his brother Gıyâseddin’s headquarters, which was then located in the city of Rey.

Gıyâseddin, who barely escaped with his life, later came and pledged allegiance to his older brother. After four years without a country or a throne, Celaleddin finally achieved his ambitions in 1224. The khans, emirs, and beys of the region came, tying shrouds around their necks, to kiss the ground before the sultan and pledge their allegiance. Within a few months, Azerbaijan, Iran, and a significant portion of Khorasan had submitted to him. Having restored order to these lands, Celaleddin quickly set state affairs in order and established a functioning administrative system through various appointments.

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Celaleddin marches against the Abbasid Caliph Nasir

Having put his affairs in order, Celaleddin first marched against the Abbasid Caliph Nasir, whom he believed had been working against the Khwarazmian Empire since his father’s time.

Nasir sought to hold onto the caliphate not only as a spiritual leader but also as a powerful ruler. Celaleddin’s aim, however, was to bring the caliph under his control as a religious leader without political authority, much like during the Seljuk era. Although the Sultan planned a general offensive against the caliphate’s territories and besieged several cities — including Basra, which was loyal to the caliphate — he was unsuccessful.

The Caliph formed two armies from his vassal emirs and sent them against Celaleddin. The first Caliphate army, numbering 20,000, which initially clashed with Celaleddin, was routed by the numerically inferior Khwarazmian forces. Celâleddin also annihilated the second army in a surprise attack, but he was unable to gain any political advantage from these victories because he was forced to return to Azerbaijan due to internal unrest. That same year, Nâsır-lidînillâh, who had reigned for 45 years and held the title of the caliph who had worn the caliphate’s sword for the longest period in Abbasid history, passed away.

Celaleddin established good relations with the Abbasid caliphs who came to power thereafter. In 1225, Celaleddin easily captured Maragheh, where the people were complaining of poor governance, and then turned his attention to the city of Tabriz. He rejected the envoys sent by the governor of Tabriz, Atabey Özbek, who had come offering him various privileges. Believing he could not stand against Celaleddin Harizm Shah, Özbek fled, leaving behind his entire family and the city.

Özbek’s wife, heartbroken that her husband had abandoned her and the city to flee, surrendered the city to Celâleddin. She later married him. Through his commanders, the sultan also brought the surrounding castles and small towns under his rule, thereby completely annexing Azerbaijan.

Celâleddin declared Tabriz the new capital of his state. However, time would show that governing these regions was not as easy as annexing them. The Khwarazmian sultan set his sights on Georgia. The Georgians frequently encroached on his territory, causing distress to his people. After capturing several border fortresses along the Georgian frontier, Celaleddin annihilated a large Georgian army near what is now the Armenia-Georgia border.

However, he was unable to fully capitalize on his victory due to a rebellion sparked in Tabriz by supporters of the fugitive former ruler Özbek. The Sultan swiftly quelled the rebellion, but around the same time, he received news that Özbek had died of grief after losing everything. Despite the harsh winter, Celaleddin set out on a new campaign; leaving part of his troops in ambush, he laid siege to Tbilisi. The enemy failed to detect this tactical maneuver and, abandoning Tbilisi Castle, launched an attack against the Khwarazmian army.

The Georgian army, falling into the ambush, was crushed by the Khwarazmian forces. The Khwarazmian sultan set his sights on Georgia. The Georgians frequently encroached on his territory, causing distress to his people.

After capturing several border forts along the Georgian frontier, Jalal al-Din annihilated a large Georgian army near what is now the Armenia-Georgia border. However, he was unable to fully capitalize on his victory due to a rebellion sparked by fugitive supporters of the former ruler, the Uzbeks, in Tabriz. The Sultan swiftly suppressed the rebellion and, around the same time, received news that Özbek had died of grief after losing everything.

The two rulers who were Celaleddin’s neighbors were closely monitoring his activities in the region. The first was Alâaddin Keykubad, the Anatolian Seljuk Sultan, who ruled over a large part of Anatolia and was known for his prudent governance and mature political acumen. The other was al-Malik al-Ashraf, the ruler of the northern branch of the Ayyubids, who had chosen the Silvan district of Diyarbakır — a region in Turkey now but known at the time as Meyyâfârikin — as his base. Relations between the two rulers were tense. In eastern Anatolia, various small principalities were striving to survive by maintaining a political balance between these two sultans.

Sultan Alâaddin, who had assessed the scale of the Mongol threat and analyzed the situation well, sought to create a buffer zone between his own realm and the Mongols by utilizing the Khwarazmian Empire. For this reason, relations between Celâlleddin Khwarazm-Shah and Alâeddin Keykubad began on a positive note.

Envoys traveling back and forth carried letters and gifts filled with compliments between the two sultans. This rapprochement between the two rulers also gave rise to a natural alliance in Anatolia against al-Malik al-Ashraf. In 1226, Celaleddin besieged Ahlat, the ancient city of Anatolia. Ahlat was under the rule of al-Malik al-Ashraf.

Despite intense battles raging around it, the city did not fall. Celaleddin was forced to lift the siege due to reports of unrest caused by some Turkmen groups from Azerbaijan and the onset of a severe winter.

Suspecting that the Ismailis, known as the Hashshashin and ruling in the vicinity of Alamut Castle, were collaborating with the Mongols against him, the Khwarazmian sultan launched a campaign against Alamut in 1227. After carrying out various acts of plunder in the region, the sultan engaged in a minor skirmish with a Mongol army he encountered. Having lost the battle, Jalal al-Din was forced to retreat back to Azerbaijan.

This was a Mongol reconnaissance unit. News that spread that same year set the Mongol steppes ablaze. Genghis Khan had fallen ill and died during a campaign he was participating in. Before his death, Genghis had divided his empire among his sons, leaving central administration to Ögedei. At the kurultai convened under Ögeday’s leadership, two crucial decisions were made: the completion of the conquest of China and the permanent resolution of the Celaleddin Harzemshah issue.

Acting accordingly, Ögeday dispatched a large army against Jalal al-Din. When this army reached the city of Isfahan in 1228, Jalal al-Din Harzem-Shah arrived in Isfahan with an even larger army. Part of Harzem-Shah’s army consisted of soldiers under the sultan’s brother, Giyas al-Din.

Using a previous grudge as an excuse, Giyaseddin abandoned the battlefield along with his troops. The Khwarazmian army’s strength had waned and morale was low. The encounter with the Mongols was extremely fierce. By the end of the first day of battle, the Khwarazmian army had emerged victorious; the Mongols had retreated. Following his commanders’ advice, Celaleddin pursued the Mongols and fell into an ambush with his army.

The Mongols, launching a sudden attack, routed the sultan’s forces and killed many of his key commanders. The Khwarazmian army fled in all directions. Rumors that Celaleddin, from whom no news had been received, had been killed spread rapidly.

Celaleddin returned to Isfahan eight days after the battle. The people welcomed him with celebrations. The sultan immediately assembled an army and marched against the Mongols, who, despite their victories, had suffered heavy losses and were unable to advance. Realizing they could not hold their ground in the region due to the extensive damage they had sustained, the Mongols were forced to withdraw from Khwarazmian territory. Giyas al-Din was killed by an emir to whom he had fled after betraying his brother, on the grounds that he had attempted to poison him.

Celaleddin, who was accustomed to defeat and had quickly recovered from the wounds of the Mongol invasion, learned that the Georgians had assembled a large army to capture Tbilisi. Silencing his vizier — who advised him to wait a little longer for the troops to fully assemble — by striking him on the head with an inkwell, the sultan marched against the Georgian army. He communicated with the Kipchaks within the Georgian ranks and persuaded them to defect from the army. Celaleddin stepped onto the battlefield and declared that he wished to demonstrate his skills to the Georgians. He killed a Georgian who came before him, his three sons, and another warrior, one after another. The morale of the Harzimshah’s troops rose. In the battle that took place in early 1229, the Georgians suffered a crushing defeat. Celaleddin conquered several well-fortified castles in the vicinity, such as Kağızman.

Celaleddin’s aggressive stance and his defeat against the Mongols had altered Sultan Alâeddin Keykubad’s attitude toward him. Sultan Alâeddin was now certain that Celâleddin Harzimşah could not cope with the Mongols. Celâleddin, however, was eager to capture Ahlat — a city he had previously besieged but failed to take — as soon as possible. In the summer of 1229, Harzimşah’s army laid siege to Ahlat.

The Sultan of Khwarezm sent a delegation of envoys to Alâeddin Keykubad in Alanya. Sultan Alâeddin advised Celâleddin’s envoys to suspend the conquest of Georgia, lift the siege of Ahlat, and seek ways to reach an agreement with the Mongols.

• Sultan Alâeddin also told the envoys that he would provide assistance only on the condition that Celâleddin withdraw his forces from Islamic lands and focus his efforts on the Mongols.

Immediately following this diplomatic mission, he himself sent an envoy bearing gifts to Celâleddin Harzimşah. The envoy was detained by Celâleddin. This time, Alâeddin Keykubad sent another letter to Celaleddin containing insulting language. Copies of the same letter were also shared with neighboring states and the Caliphate as part of a diplomatic initiative. The Sultan of Khwarezm did not respond to this letter. After a year-long siege, Ahlat was forced to surrender.

The returning envoys reported to Alâeddin Keykubad that Celâleddin Harzimşah had ignored his advice and was oppressing the people in Eastern Anatolia. Around this time, incited by some local beys, Celâleddin Harzimşah had decided to eliminate the Anatolian Seljuks. In fact, the capture of Ahlat was also a step toward this goal. Alâeddin Keykubad formed an alliance with the Ayyubids against the Harzimshahs. Celaleddin set out with an army he had assembled, including troops from the local lords under his command, intending to reach Sivas. The Khwarazmian army clashed with the army of Alâeddin Keykubad — supported by the Ayyubids — in a plain that historians today believe is located on the border between Sivas Suşehri and Erzincan, these are the regions in Turkey today. The Khwarazmian army emerged victorious in the clash of the vanguard forces. The battle, which began on Friday, August 9, 1230, ended the following day when Celaleddin Khwarazm Shah, having lost hope of victory due to the numerical superiority of the Seljuk-Ayubid army, abandoned the battlefield.

Many Khwarazmian soldiers, while fleeing, tumbled down a cliff and drowned in the nearby river. Many others sought refuge with the Greeks of Trebizond, with whom Jalal al-Din Khwarazm-Shah had maintained good relations. The battlefield was a sea of corpses, wounded bodies, and spoils of war. At first, Sultan Ala al-Din did not believe his rival had fled so suddenly and assumed it was a military ruse. The following hours proved him wrong.

Following his defeat, Celaleddin went to Ahlat. The sultan, having taken everything of value from the city, ordered Ahlat to be burned. Thus, an ancient city was consigned to the depths of history. From there, the sultan proceeded to Azerbaijan and, as the Mongols were advancing, began to explore various options. Although the Ayyubids and Seljuks stated they would not act hostilely, they also rejected the sultan’s requests for aid.

Amid all these setbacks, Celaleddin received the final blow from his vizier, Şerefü’l-mülk. Upon discovering the vizier’s correspondence with other states against his own interests, Celaleddin realized the vizier coveted his lands. The vizier, who even coveted Celaleddin’s harem, had inflicted great suffering on the people through his tyrannical rule. However, Celaleddin, who was fiercely engaged on the battlefields, had failed to notice all that was happening. Rebellions broke out one after another in many parts of Azerbaijan. This was due to both the poor governance and the defeats suffered. The sultan first had his vizier imprisoned and then had him executed.

Although Celaleddin managed to suppress the uprisings with great difficulty, he was morally crushed by the news that the Mongols were advancing once again. Nesevi, the historian in the Sultan’s entourage, wrote in his book — in which he sorrowfully recounted the Sultan’s life — that the Sultan wept over the loss of his homeland, his own impending death, and the fact that all his possessions would fall into the enemy’s hands; in other words, the fearless warrior Celaleddin had, for the first time, shown fear of the enemy.

The sultan, having made a final appeal for aid to the local emirs and beys, retreated toward Anatolia, having lost all hope of receiving assistance. On the advice of a Mongol commander who had defected to his side, Celaleddin established a camp near Lake Van and then proceeded to Hani, where he convened a war council. There, he received word that his requests for aid had been rejected. The historian Nesevi, who brought the news, also informed the sultan that the Mongols were approaching. Heeding the words of the emir of Diyarbakır, who had encouraged him to march into Anatolia with a promise of support, Celaleddin turned his course toward the interior of Anatolia.

The sultan, who was ambushed by the Mongols near Diyarbakır, was barely saved by a relative who dragged him away while he was intoxicated.

When Celaleddin sought refuge in Diyarbakır, the people of Diyarbakır stoned him and turned him away. He then sought refuge in Meyyâfârikin as a last resort. However, he was unable to reach his destination due to 15 Mongol cavalrymen who caught up with him. The sultan killed two of the cavalrymen and fled toward the mountains. There, he was captured by a band of bandits.

• Celaleddin, who had been stripped of all his possessions, was killed by bandits in mid-August 1231, despite all his promises and efforts to survive.

The sultan, whose belongings and remains were brought down from the mountain by the Ayyubid governor of Mayyafarikin, was buried there. Those who recognized his belongings and body had identified him. All that remained of Sultan Jalal al-Din’s possessions were his horse, his saddle, his famous sword, and the small rod he had sewn into the middle of his hair as an amulet.

After the sultan’s death, the remnants of his army came under the protection of the Seljuk and Ayyubid states. The soldiers who made up the remnants of the Khwarazmian army would play significant roles in Anatolia and the Middle East, and 13 years after Celaleddin’s death, they would recapture Jerusalem from the Crusaders. However, due to their undisciplined behavior, they would not be able to hold their ground here for long and would eventually dissolve and disappear among the other elements of the Muslim states.

And that’s all! If you made it this far, thank you genuinely. History like this deserves to be remembered, and readers like you make it worth writing.