Khawarij, Murji’ah & Mu’tazilah: Three Schools of Thought That Shaped Islamic Theology

In the first century of the Hijri calendar, the Muslim world experienced a seismic political upheaval. The civil war between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan did not merely divide the Ummah along political lines — it also gave rise to a profound theological question that would shape the entire landscape of Islamic thought for centuries to come: does a Muslim who commits a major sin remain a believer, or have they fallen into disbelief?

*It was from this very question that three major theological schools were born: *the Khawarij, the Murji’ah, and the Mu’tazilah.

The Khawarij: The Most Extreme

The Khawarij (al-Khawārij) literally means “those who went out.” They were the first group to secede from the ranks of Ali ibn Abi Talib following the arbitration (tahkim) at the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE [1]. Their famous slogan was lā hukma illā lillāh (there is no judgment except that of Allah), which they used to reject all human arbitration in religious matters [2].

Their core theological principle held that a person who commits a major sin automatically becomes a disbeliever (murtad) and may be declared an apostate through takfir [3]. This position carried extremely grave consequences — they declared both Ali and Muawiyah, as well as anyone who accepted the arbitration, to be disbelievers. This group was ultimately responsible for the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib in 661 CE [1].

The Murji’ah: The Most Lenient

In reaction to the extreme stance of the Khawarij, the Murji’ah school of thought emerged. The word Murji’ah is derived from irjā’, meaning “to defer” or “to postpone.” Their central principle was that the judgment of a person’s faith should be deferred and left entirely to Allah [4].

The Murji’ah held that only Allah has the right to determine whether a Muslim has committed apostasy. They further believed that neither good deeds nor sins affect the status of a person’s faith, and that a person would not be punished in the Hereafter so long as they possessed sincere belief [5]. This position was strongly criticized by the scholars of Ahlus Sunnah, as it was seen to risk undermining the obligations of worship and the avoidance of sin.

The Mu’tazilah: The Most Rationalist

The Mu’tazilah (al-Mu’tazilah) literally means “those who withdrew.” This school was founded by Wāṣil ibn ‘Aṭā’ (d. 748 CE), who parted ways with the study circle of Hasan al-Basri in Basra following a debate on the status of those who commit major sins [6]. Wāṣil proposed a position that differed from both the Khawarij and the Murji’ah: the one who commits a major sin is neither a believer nor a disbeliever, but occupies an intermediate position between the two (al-manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn), that is, the status of a fāsiq (transgressor) [7].

The Mu’tazilah are well known for their five fundamental principles (al-uṣūl al-khamsah):

1. Tawhid (the absolute oneness of Allah)

2. al-‘Adl (divine justice)

3. al-Wa’d wa al-Wa’īd (the promise and the threat)

4. al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn (the intermediate position)

5. al-Amr bi al-Ma’rūf wa al-Nahy ‘an al-Munkar (enjoining good and forbidding evil) [8]

This school reached the height of its influence during the reign of Caliph al-Ma’mun of the Abbasid dynasty, when Mu’tazilism was adopted as the official state doctrine. This led to the mihnah (inquisition), which lasted for eighteen years (833–851 CE) [9].

The Position of Ahlus Sunnah: A Balanced Middle Path

Ahlus Sunnah wal Jama’ah rejected all three of the above positions. According to their understanding, faith (īmān) consists of three essential components: belief in the heart (taṣdīq bil qalb), verbal affirmation (iqrār bil lisān), and righteous action (‘amal bil arkān). Faith may increase through obedience and decrease through disobedience, but it is not entirely nullified except through shirk (associating partners with Allah) or major disbelief (kufr akbar). The one who commits a major sin retains their status as a believer who has sinned — not a disbeliever.

This position was later systematically articulated by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari (who was himself formerly a Mu’tazilite) and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, giving rise to the two principal theological schools of Ahlus Sunnah that the majority of Muslims follow to this day.

Video

• https://youtube.com/shorts/tiKlc3GEDwQ?feature=share
• https://www.tiktok.com/@islamdigitalnusantara/video/7616330518384184577
• https://www.facebook.com/share/r/1NmA6Z1HyD/

Citation List

[1] Encyclopaedia Britannica — “Kharijite”

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kharijite

Information cited: The origins of the Khawarij as a group that seceded from Ali after accepting the arbitration at the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), and the assassination of Ali in 661 CE.

[2] Oxford Bibliographies — “The Kharijites and Contemporary Scholarship”

https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0159.xml

Information cited: The Khawarij slogan “lā hukma illā lillāh” as a rejection of arbitration at the Battle of Siffin.

[3] Wikipedia — “Kharijites”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharijites

Information cited: The core Khawarij doctrine that the one who commits a major sin automatically becomes an apostate (disbeliever) and may be subjected to takfir.

[4] Encyclopaedia Britannica — “Murji’ah”

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Murjiah

Information cited: The Murji’ah as a school that believed in the deferral (irjā’) of judgment regarding the one who commits a major sin, holding that only Allah has the right to judge.

[5] Wikipedia — “Murji’ah”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murji%27ah

Information cited: The Murji’ah belief that neither good deeds nor sins affect one’s status of faith, and that a person would not be punished as long as they possess sincere belief.

[6] Encyclopaedia Britannica — “Wāṣil ibn ‘Aṭā’”

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wasil-ibn-Ata

Information cited: Wāṣil ibn ‘Aṭā’ as the founder of the Mu’tazilah who parted ways with the study circle of Hasan al-Basri in Basra.

[7] Oxford Reference — “Wasil ibn Ata” (The Oxford Dictionary of Islam)

https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803121214237

Information cited: The doctrine of al-manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, which holds that the one who commits a major sin is neither a believer nor a disbeliever.

[8] WikiShia — “Al-Usul al-Khamsa”

https://en.wikishia.net/view/Al-Usul_al-Khamsa

Information cited: The five fundamental principles (al-uṣūl al-khamsah) of the Mu’tazilah: Tawhid, al-‘Adl, al-Wa’d wa al-Wa’īd, al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn, and al-Amr bi al-Ma’rūf wa al-Nahy ‘an al-Munkar.

[9] Wikipedia — “Mu’tazilism”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%27tazilism

Information cited: The mihnah (inquisition) lasting eighteen years (833–851 CE) during which Mu’tazilism was adopted as the official state doctrine under Caliph al-Ma’mun.

for more info, lets join telegram group of Islam Digital Nusantara : https://t.me/+OO6_tb2YeP8zMmNl