Figure 1: Left — Figures Riding an Elephant (Terracotta, Height 4 1/2"), Kauśāmbī, 1st Century BCE (Śuṅga Period). Right — Auspicious Emblem with Four Dancing Figures (Terracotta, 4 9/16"), Kauśāmbī, 1st Century BCE (Śuṅga Period). Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Allahabad Between Two Empires: After Mauryas and Before Guptas

The story of Allahabad under the reign of Śuṅgas, Mitras, Kuṣāṇas, and Maghas (c. 184 BCE — c. 350 CE).

On the banks of the Gaṅgā and Yamunā, the ancient Prayāga stood like a patient witness to the drama of Indian history. Empires rose and fell, armies marched past its riverbanks, kings issued proud proclamations, and dynasties that seemed unshakable vanished into silence. The waters of the confluence reflected the glory of each passing age, yet they also carried away the remnants of fading powers.

Between the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of the Guptas, this land did not sink into obscurity. On the contrary, it was held together by smaller but determined dynasties, each with its own story of struggle and survival. Though they do not find the same space in our popular memory as the Mauryas or the Guptas, their tale is no less important, for it was in these centuries that Prayāga preserved continuity through resilience.

As we saw in the earlier account, northwest India had first faced the might of Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in 535 BCE, and then the whirlwind invasion of Alexander of Macedon in 327–325 BCE. These incursions shook the political order but also connected India to distant worlds. In 321 BCE, Candragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas of Magadha and established an empire that extended as far west as Afghanistan. In such a vast dominion, Prayāga must surely have been included. By the reign of Aśoka, Candragupta’s grandson, Kauśāmbī had become a significant provincial centre, governed by a Mahāmātra appointed by the emperor himself.

The most enduring testimony of this period is the Allahabad Pillar, upon which six of Aśoka’s seven Major Pillar Edicts are carved. To this day, the pillar stands as a silent witness, carrying words that speak of dharma, compassion, and governance. Yet empires are as mortal as men. After Aśoka’s death, the Mauryan unity began to dissolve. In 184 BCE, Bṛhadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, was slain by his own general, Puṣyamitra Śuṅga. Thus began the Śuṅga dynasty, and with it begins our present story — stretching from 184 BCE to around 350 CE, until the dawn of the Guptas.

Allahabad Under the Śuṅgas (c. 184–150 BCE)

Figure 2: Left — A standing female (Terracotta, 5"X2.25") with thin waist and broad pelvis. She wears a transparent skirt and a sārī supported by a girdle. In her right upraised hand she probably holds a bird. Her hair are covered by a turban held up by fillets. Lower portion broken. She has a smiling face. Kauśāmbī, c. 200 BCE (Late Mauryan-Early Śuṅga Period). Right — Head of a female (Terracotta, 3"X1.5") wearing a turban which covers right and left sides of her face in two wraps. The top frill is broad and its lower portion is covered with an ornamental fillet. Pensive face. Painted with red colour. Buxur, c. 150 BCE (Śuṅga Period). Source: Kala, S.C. (1950). Terracotta figurines from Kauśāmbī. The Municipal Museum, Allahabad. p. 97 & 125.

Puṣyamitra Śuṅga, the general who killed the last Mauryan king, seized much of the Mauryan Empire. He was both a seasoned warrior and an orthodox Brāhmaṇa. Under his rule, the patronage that Buddhism had enjoyed under the Mauryas began to diminish, and many Buddhist monks, according to later traditions, faced persecution. The Aśokan dharma that once echoed across the land gave way to the revival of older Vedic rituals and practices.

This change in cultural climate is reflected in art. The polished grandeur of Mauryan stone-work gave way to a more rustic form. At Kauśāmbī and surrounding areas, archaeologists have unearthed terracotta figurines that reveal this transformation. The large, refined, and symbolic art of the Mauryas faded, replaced by small clay figures shaped by humble hands. These pieces often depicted Yakṣas, Yakṣiṇīs, and Nāgas, surrounded by trees and animals, recalling older animistic traditions that the people had never abandoned. They also give us glimpses of daily life: women adorned with ornaments, animals carved with care, and domestic scenes that suggest a society turning inward, cherishing household deities when royal favour was uncertain.

Politically too, the Śuṅgas struggled to hold the ground. After Puṣyamitra’s death in 151 BCE, his successors found their control loosening. Although, in Magadha, they lasted until around 75 BCE, when the Kāṇvas replaced them, but in other regions their grip was short-lived. The Indo-Greeks pressed from the northwest, new rulers emerged in local centres, and the Śuṅga authority in Prayāga gave way. By around 150 BCE, the region fell under the rule of a new dynasty — the Mitras, a line of kings whose names bore the suffix — mitra.

Allahabad Under the Mitras (c. 150 BCE — c. 127 CE)

Figure 3: Left — A female standing with her left leg slightly bent (Terracotta, Height 4 3/4"). She wears a sārī supported by a jewelled girdle, three jewelled bracelets on each of the hand, torque, a long necklace of several beaded strings and circular flat earrings from which issue pearl tassels. The head-dress which is covered with jewelled chains in composed of two rolls, the left side one being more heavy and prominent. She has a oval and smiling face and her hands are clasped in front. Kauśāmbī, c. 100 BCE (Mitra Period). Right — Goddess Lakṣmī (Light grey clay, 5"X2 1/2") standing on a full blown lotus in a tank encircled by a railing. The right hand of the Goddess is raised towards the ear and the left fixed at the hip. Kauśāmbī, c. 100 BCE (Mitra Period). Source: Kala, S.C. (1950). Terracotta figurines from Kauśāmbī. The Municipal Museum, Allahabad. p. 81 & 115.

With the decline of the Śuṅgas, Kauśāmbī re-emerged as a flourishing civic centre. Its streets bustled with merchants, artisans, and pilgrims. Caravans carried goods from the Gangetic plains to Mathurā and beyond, while river routes along the Gaṅgā and Yamunā tied the city to Bengal and eastern India.

The Mitras developed their own coinage system, which tells us much about their independence and vitality. At first, copper coins imitated the Mauryan-Śuṅga style. Gradually, new designs appeared, and finally coins bearing the actual names of kings were minted. Among their symbols, the bull became most prominent, representing both authority and stability. Each coin was more than a piece of metal — it was a declaration that Kauśāmbī stood proud and self-governing.

Figure 4: Kauśāmbī (c. 1st Century BCE); Monarchical Coin, King Varun Mitra, Copper Unit, Weight : 1.08 gms, 10.56 mm, Rev. Tree in Railing, Brahmi Legend VA RU NA MI. Source: Indian Numismatic Gallery.

The Mitras ruled not only in Kauśāmbī but also in Ayodhyā, Mathurā, and Pañcāla. Their widespread presence suggests that they were not a single family but a cluster of related dynasties, perhaps once governors under the Śuṅgas, who had declared independence when central control weakened. Some historians suggest that the Mitra rulers of Kauśāmbī, Ayodhyā, and Pañcāla may have been connected to the Śuṅgas, since many Śuṅga rulers also bore names ending with “-mitra,” such as Puṣyamitra. It is further proposed that the Śuṅgas, much like the Mauryas before them, may have appointed royal princes as governors of important provinces. When the central Śuṅga authority weakened, these provincial princes could well have asserted their independence from Magadha, thereby giving rise to the Mitra dynasties.

The list of Mitra rulers of Kauśāmbī is long and debated. Some scholars mention seven kings, others as many as twenty-five. Names preserved include Agarāju, Agnimitra, Aśvaghoṣa, Bṛhaspatimitra, Devamitra, Jyeṣṭhamitra, Prajāpatimitra, Prauṣṭhamitra, Rāḍhamitra, and Sarpamitra. Each of these names, now half-forgotten, once resonated with power in Prayāga’s streets and temples.

The Mitras extended their influence beyond Kauśāmbī. Coins and inscriptions suggest control over Magadha and even Kannauj. The most celebrated of them, Bṛhaspatimitra, is remembered in the Hāthīgumphā inscription of Kharavela, the king of Kaliṅga, as the “Magadharāja” — the king of Magadha. Such a reference shows that the Mitras were no petty chieftains but rulers of stature in the Gangetic plain. For nearly two centuries, their power endured. Even if empires like the Indo-Greeks or the Śakas shone brightly elsewhere, in Prayāga it was the Mitras who carried on the order of life. Their long survival was finally interrupted by the march of the Kuṣāṇas.

Allahabad Under the Kuṣāṇas (c. 127— 155 CE)

Figure 5: Left — Male figure (Terracotta, 3 1/2") seated with his knees drawn up. He wears a sleeved coat. The head-dress is of flowers and fillets with two raised plumes above. He also puts on a torque with Nandīpāda symbols. He appears to be holding a bird in his left hand. Kauśāmbī, c. 100 CE (Kuṣāṇa Period). Right — Bust of a lady (Terracotta, 4"X2 1/2") having a long face pressed out of a mould. The head and ears are covered by a veil type apparel which has a crest having the hoods of serpents. She puts on small round earrings and a torque. It probably represents a serpent goddess. Part below waist is gone. Kauśāmbī, c. 150 CE (Kuṣāṇa Period). Source: Kala, S.C. (1950). Terracotta figurines from Kauśāmbī. The Municipal Museum, Allahabad. p. 91 & 109.

The Kuṣāṇas, originally of Central Asian stock, expanded into northern India with great force. They brought with them new currents of art, trade, and religion. The mighty emperor Kaniṣka conquered Kauśāmbī sometime after 127 CE, though the exact year remains uncertain. His reign, usually placed between 127 and 150 CE, marks one of the high points of Kuṣāṇa power.

The Rābatākā inscription, an extraordinary record found in Afghanistan, confirms Kaniṣka’s dominion over Kauśāmbī. It proclaims in bold words that he had subdued Ujjain, Sāketa, Pāṭaliputra, and Kauśāmbī itself, bringing “all India” under his will —

In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kauṇḍinya, Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ujjayinī) and the city of Zageda (Sāketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kauśāmbī) and the city of Palabotro (Pāṭaliputra) and as far as the city of Ziri-tambo (Śrī-Campā)… whatever rulers and other important persons (they might have), he had submitted to his will, and he had submitted all India to his will.

For a brief but shining moment, Prayāga was drawn into an empire that stretched from Central Asia to Bengal, from the Oxus to the Gangā.

But the Kuṣāṇas were not only conquerors. They were also patrons of Buddhism, and under them Gandhāra art — depicting the Buddha in human form with Greco-Roman influence — flourished. One may imagine pilgrims arriving at Prayāga during this time, carrying stories of Kaniṣka’s great stūpa at Peshawar or of monasteries supported by his wealth. Yet this wave of prosperity did not last long in Kauśāmbī. After Kaniṣka’s death around 150 AD, his successor Huviṣka struggled to maintain control. By 155 CE, local forces asserted themselves. Among them were the Maghas, a dynasty from Bandhogarh in present-day Madhya Pradesh, who seized Kauśāmbī and ended Kuṣāṇa dominance in the region.

Allahabad Under the Maghas (c. 155–300 CE)

Figure 6: Left — Bust of a lady (Light grey clay, Height 2 3/4") holding a baby in her left arm. The hair of the baby are arranged upward and end in two topknots. She wears cup shaped earrings marked with dots. On her right arm is seen a scorpion crawling. The facial expression is unwholesome. Part below waist missing. Kauśāmbī, c. 200 CE (Magha Period). Right — A foreign dancing girl (Terracotta, 2 1/4"X2") wearing a skirt, earrings, torque, necklace and bangles on hands. Her left hand is raised and touches the left earring. Kauśāmbī, c. 300 CE (Late or Post Magha Period). Source: Kala, S.C. (1950). Terracotta figurines from Kauśāmbī. The Municipal Museum, Allahabad. p. 89 & 143.

The Maghas stand out in Indian history for one striking custom — they traced descent through mothers’ names rather than fathers’. Such a matrilineal tradition was rare in ancient India, making the Maghas unusual and intriguing.

The first known Magha ruler was Vasiṣṭhiputra Bhīmasena (120–140 CE), followed by his son Kautsiputra Pothasiri (140–170 CE). In 155 CE, Bhadramagha, heir-apparent, captured Kauśāmbī from the Kuṣāṇas, while his father still ruled at Bandhogarh. When Bhadramagha became king in 170 CE, his reign was brief — he died just five years later, in 175 CE.

Next came Gautamīputra Śivamagha (175–184 CE), whose coins survive though his deeds remain shrouded in mystery. He was succeeded by Vaiśravaṇa (c. 185–208 CE), and then by Bhīmavarman (208–217 CE). Later rulers, Satamagha and Vijayamagha, are also known through their coins, though their exact dates are unclear. These coins, scattered in the soil of Kauśāmbī, whisper the names of rulers otherwise lost to history.

For nearly 150 years, the Maghas held their ground. Their rule coincided with great changes elsewhere — the Kuṣāṇas waned, the Śakas declined, and new powers arose in central India. Yet within Prayāga, the Maghas kept continuity alive. Markets still bustled, the confluence still attracted pilgrims, and the city’s terracotta tradition flourished. Their matrilineal identity perhaps gave women a higher place in family and inheritance than in other parts of India, though hard evidence is scarce.

Decline of the Maghas and Later Kings (c. 300–350 CE)

Figure 7: Different Terracotta Male Heads, c. 300 CE (Late or Post Magha Period). Source: Kala, S.C. (1950). Terracotta figurines from Kauśāmbī. The Municipal Museum, Allahabad. p. 137.

By the beginning of the fourth century, the Maghas’ strength was ebbing. Around 300–320 CE, a ruler named Nava appears in the numismatic record. He was followed, by the middle of the century, by Puṣpaśrī, who ruled from Kauśāmbī. But these rulers lived in the shadow of a rising power — Samudragupta of the Guptas, whose energy and vision would soon transform northern India. Puṣpaśrī’s successor was subdued by this formidable emperor, and with that, the age of local dynasties in Allahabad came to an end.

When we recall the history of ancient India, our minds often turn to the grand names — the Mauryas, the Guptas, the Mughals. Yet history is not only written by the mighty. The Mitras ruled for nearly two centuries, the Maghas for about one and a half. Their reigns lasted longer than those of the Śiśunāgas, the Nandas, or even the Mauryas. And though the Kuṣāṇas shone briefly with brilliance, their presence in Prayāga was short compared to the steady endurance of these so-called “smaller” dynasties.

The story of Allahabad between two great empires is thus a story of resilience. It reminds us that even when imperial banners fade, life goes on — cities continue to thrive, art takes new forms, and local rulers keep society intact. To remember the Mitras and the Maghas is to honour those who held the torch of continuity during centuries when India’s political map was fragmented and uncertain.

On quiet evenings, when the Gaṅgā and Yamunā meet in eternal embrace, one may almost imagine hearing their voices. They are the forgotten kings of Allahabad, who ruled not briefly but for centuries, guarding the land between fall and emergence of two great empires. Their memory lingers, like a whisper in the confluence, urging us not to forget that history is not only made by emperors but also by those who endure in their shadow.

Bibliography

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