There were earthquakes and they increased the Vesuvius eruption’s death toll

Pompeii’s poorest and enslaved people may have made up the largest number of victims.

The ruins of Pompeii today. Mount Vesuvius in the background. Wikipedia.

When the Roman city of Pompeii was destroyed in 79 A.D., its inhabitants faced more than a volcanic eruption. New research says that a powerful earthquake struck during the catastrophe, collapsing buildings, trapping survivors and potentially sealing the fate of many residents who might otherwise have escaped.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius remains one of history’s best-documented natural disasters, thanks largely to the eyewitness accounts of Roman statesman Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, better known as Pliny the Younger. Writing in letters to historian Tacitus, the teenager described towering clouds of ash, violent tremors and widespread panic as the volcano devastated the Bay of Naples.

The Last Day of Pompeii. Painting by Karl Brullov, 1830–1833

For centuries, archaeologists believed the disaster unfolded in two main stages: an initial bombardment of pumice and ash, followed by devastating pyroclastic surges — fast-moving clouds of superheated gas, ash and volcanic debris. However, a new study published in Frontiers in Earth Science suggests there was a critical third phase that may have significantly increased the number of casualties.

A city under siege

The eruption began around midday of 24 August when Vesuvius blasted volcanic material nearly 20 miles (32 kilometers) into the atmosphere. For approximately 18 hours, pumice lapilli — lightweight volcanic stones formed from gas-rich magma — rained down on Pompeii.

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As the deposits accumulated, some reaching nearly nine feet (2.7 meters) in depth, roofs began collapsing under the weight. Many residents fled while escape routes remained open, but others sought shelter indoors, hoping to ride out the disaster.

As darkness fell, the situation became increasingly desperate. Streets were buried under volcanic debris, visibility was poor and powerful tremors shook the city. For those still in Pompeii, every decision carried enormous risk.

The earthquake changed everything

According to the new research, a powerful earthquake struck during the night and into the early morning hours. Based on archaeological evidence and geological analysis, researchers estimate the quake may have reached a magnitude of 5.8.

The discovery stems from the remains of two men, both believed to have been in their 50s, found beneath a collapsed wall (pictured above). Their injuries were consistent with severe compression trauma commonly observed in modern earthquake victims rather than the effects of extreme heat or suffocation caused by volcanic activity.

Researchers also determined that the wall exhibited signs of horizontal seismic displacement, suggesting it collapsed due to earthquake shaking while pumice was still falling from the sky.

The significance of the earthquake extends beyond the individuals it directly killed.

Scientists believe the tremors may have dramatically increased the overall death toll by trapping people inside damaged homes and shelters just hours before the eruption’s deadliest phase. Buildings weakened by continuous ash fall became even more unstable during the quake, while collapsed walls and blocked streets may have cut off escape routes.

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At the same time, the relentless shaking and fear caused by the earthquake may have convinced many residents that remaining indoors was safer than venturing outside into darkness, falling pumice and apparent chaos. In reality, those decisions may have left them directly in the path of the catastrophe that followed.

Trapped before the final blow

Hours later came the deadliest phase.

As the eruption column above Vesuvius became unstable, it collapsed, generating a series of pyroclastic surges — ground-hugging clouds of superheated gas, ash and rock fragments traveling at tremendous speed.

When these surges reached Pompeii, they swept through the city within minutes. Temperatures were high enough to cause near-instant death, while the dense ash and toxic gases made breathing impossible.

Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash, pumice and cinders. Wikipedia

Many of those killed during this stage may already have been trapped beneath collapsed structures, injured by falling debris or sheltering inside buildings damaged by the earthquake. Others may have delayed evacuation because of the continuing seismic activity.

In this sense, the earthquake may have acted as a deadly force multiplier: not the primary cause of death, but an event that left thousands more vulnerable when the pyroclastic surges arrived.

What killed Pompeii’s inhabitants?

The new study reinforces the idea that Pompeii’s destruction was not caused by a single event but by a cascading sequence of disasters.

Researchers believe the majority of victims died from pyroclastic surges, which overwhelmed the city during the eruption’s final phase. Others were crushed when roofs collapsed under the weight of accumulating pumice. Earthquakes likely accounted for a smaller share of direct fatalities but may have indirectly contributed to many more deaths by trapping residents, damaging buildings and discouraging escape.

Contrary to popular depictions, lava played virtually no role in Pompeii’s destruction. The city was buried beneath layers of ash, pumice and volcanic deposits, not molten rock.

The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum (c. 1821) by John Martin.

Here’s a timeline of Pompeii’s destruction:

Midday, Day 1

• Mount Vesuvius erupts.
• A massive ash column rises into the atmosphere.

Afternoon and evening

• Pumice lapilli rain continuously onto Pompeii.
• Buildings begin collapsing under the growing weight.
• Many residents flee the city.

Night

• Ash and pumice deposits continue accumulating.
• Earthquakes intensify.
• Some residents seek shelter indoors while others become trapped.

The Vesuvius crater nowadays. National Geographic.

Early morning, Day 2

• A powerful earthquake, possibly magnitude 5.8, strikes.
• Buildings and walls collapse.
• Escape routes may become blocked.
• Fear and confusion discourage further evacuation attempts.

Shortly afterward

• The eruption column collapses.
• Pyroclastic surges race toward Pompeii.

Final minutes

• Superheated clouds of ash and gas engulf the city.
• Most remaining residents die almost instantly.
• Pompeii is buried beneath several meters of volcanic deposits.

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Ranking the causes of death

Based on current archaeological evidence, scientists believe the causes of death can be ranked as follows:

1. Pyroclastic surges (majority of deaths) The fast-moving clouds of superheated gas and ash were responsible for most fatalities. Victims were killed by extreme heat, toxic gases and suffocation within moments.

2. Roof collapses caused by pumice accumulation Hours of falling volcanic rock caused numerous structures to fail, crushing residents who had taken shelter indoors.

3. Earthquake-induced collapses and entrapment The earthquake likely killed some residents directly through collapsing buildings. More importantly, it may have increased the overall death toll by trapping survivors, damaging escape routes and convincing many people to remain in shelters just before the arrival of the pyroclastic surges.

4. Lava Virtually none. Lava never reached Pompeii and played no significant role in the city’s destruction.

Who were the victims?

The emerging picture is of a city overwhelmed not by a single catastrophe but by a relentless chain of disasters. First came the ash and pumice, then the earthquake, and finally the pyroclastic surges. For many Pompeii residents, the earthquake may have been the turning point that transformed a dangerous situation into an inescapable death trap.

The city’s population before the eruption is generally estimated at 10,000–20,000 residents, suggesting that a substantial proportion managed to flee before the deadliest phase. About 1,150–1,300 bodies have been recovered within Pompeii itself. Archaeologists estimate the actual death toll in Pompeii was likely around 2,000 people.

Historians believe many of those who remained in Pompeii during the eruption may have been among the city’s poorest residents, including slaves and laborers. The scarcity of coins near the bodies, however, indicates that they were from lower classes.

Some enslaved people lived in cramped quarters, and a few victims have been found with chains.

Wealthier inhabitants had greater means to flee and more trespassing power.

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