What does Islam teach us about the notion of State ?

What does Islam teach us about the notion of State ?

Part 1: Summary

In the first episode, the viewer is introduced to the Islamic world by the depiction of Muhammad’s life.

Born half orphan in 570 (Jahilliyah era, age of ignorance) in Mecca -a very hostile environment-, in a poor family of the ruling tribe, the Quraysh, Muhammad had nothing special about him at his birth. Muslims do distinguish the Messenger, al-rasul from the Message, al-risala. Thus, the main characteristic of Islam was the oneness of God, Tawhid which cements monotheism. This meant that worshiping the prophet would be a sin, shirq.

To better understand the foundation of Islam, a large corpus of texts: the Qur’an, Hadiths (their veracity is debated), and non-Muslim sources are available. They tell us the story of a merchant who became a preacher at a time when Arabia was a conglomerate of pagan tribes. At that time, Mecca was a predominant city by spiritual and economic means, though its importance remains discussed. Muhammad had a sorrowful childhood. As his mother died, he was raised by his grandfather, then his uncle Abu Bakr who was a powerful figure in Mecca. He would go on to get out of poverty by caravan trading. He married an old aristocratic woman called Khadija and had four daughters. Muhammad had now risen to the top of society.

Nevertheless, he was experiencing a personal crisis. He only found peace by deeply meditating on top of Jebel Nour in Hira cave. It was there where he received the first Revelation of the Qur’an, The Recitation started by Iqra, « read », even though he was illiterate. His illiteracy is essential to Islam because it symbolizes his purity. As a continuation of the Abrahamic message, Islam was a revolutionary message that wanted to overturn social order. His message was disliked by the Quraysh because it would undermine their control of the center of worship that Mecca represented. A clash of values between paganism and Islam would define the next era.

The second episode begins by telling the story of a metaphysical journey the Prophet experienced. Angel Gabriel took Muhammad on a winged horse, Al-Buraq to Jerusalem. Then, the Prophet began his ascent to the 7 heavens where he got to meet the past prophets and God. Some think it was a physical journey, others think it was only a spiritual experience but its symbolism is heavy. It is considered as a sign of recognition from God and the prophets to Muhammad being the last messenger of monotheism. This was a turning point in Muhammad’s life.

Afterward, he decided to cut short with tribalism and began trying to spread his religion outside of Mecca to build a community based on ideology. While they had no clan protection there and after a failed attempt to assassinate the Prophet, he and his followers decided to go to Yathrib -later Medina- in 622, the year of the Hijra (considered as the beginning of the Islamic era). Muhammad began to implement the transformative mission of Islam by making the Mosque a focal point for the community, Al-Umma which was made up of Muslims, pagans, and Jews. He entered the era of the political leader. He also put in place

the Treaty of Medina, formalizing the relations with the tribes, even though its veracity remains discussed.

The prophet received a new revelation urging him to fight back when attacked. This episode remains controversial even after 1400 years. First round, the battle of Badr in 624 went to the Muslims which cemented Muhammad’s reputation as an important leader. The second round, the Battle of Uhud in 625 was either a draw or a Muslim defeat, but the Muslim community survived. The third and last round, the Battle of the Trench went to the Muslims because they dug a trench to defend themselves. The Quraysh tribe asked the Jews to attack the Muslims. They went on to exterminate the Jewish tribe Banu Qurayza. Since then, this event has been seared in Muslim and Jewish historical memory.

By 627, the Prophet became a charismatic figure, the most powerful man in Arabia. He used marriages to gain influence with alliances. While Mecca was where he focused on faith and spirituality, Medina was where he developed his leadership, both socially and politically. He deeply influenced how people lived their daily lives. A moral code was then revealed to him based on social justice, Al-Sharia. This code was again written 200 years after Muhammad’s death and is now used in countries as a main source of law. Nevertheless, Muhammad was an important reformer, ending infanticide and regulating polygamy. Since the Kaaba, which was controlled by his enemies, was central to Muslim worship, he wanted to challenge them. After the seemingly humiliating treaty of Hudaybiyyah, he gained access to the Kaaba the next year. He won this time using diplomacy.

In 630, Muhammad got his ultimate victory against Quraysh and had the opportunity to massacre the tribe. He went on to declare a general amnesty and restored the Kaaba as the shrine of the one God. In 632, peace and security reigned in Arabia as tribes converted to Islam. Muhammad gave his final sermon where he assured that peace, equality, and reconciliation shall be the main features of Islam. He died on the 8th of June 632, leaving a very strong legacy behind him.

Part 2: What new political ideas and practical changes did Islam bring to its society ?

Islam is to be considered a revolutionary structure of belief for its time. It rose in a tribal society organized by blood ties, honor, and terror. It is no wonder that the pre-Islamic era is called the Jahilliyah where people used to practice infanticide and unregulated polygamy, and conflicts were solved by the sword.

The third religion of the Book introduced concepts that were unheard of such as social justice, civil state, and the rule of law with the Treaty of Medina, diplomacy with the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, tolerance, equality… The use of peace and marriage to gain control is also key to the early expansion of Islam. Muhammad and his followers seemed to look after their social image. This concept can be understood today as soft power. They also gave women more rights, such as for inheritance and property.

It also brought a new way of organizing people: the Umma or the community of believers which included everyone without a clergy. Thus, Muhammad and his followers contributed to the creation of a Nation by the means of Ernest Renan; the shared desire of

building a future together. A « social contract » was also made up where if you pledge allegiance, you will gain safety and peace. This was possible with the Prophet being an exceptional and charismatic political leader. Muhammad also gained influence by mediating conflicts and referring to moral, juridical and political codes as the Sharia in day-to-day life. His presence in his Mosque would determine how Muslims see their own « Forum ». With their minaret, they are still a central place to every Muslim community (prayer, education, helping the needy, mediation of conflicts…)

Moreover, Islam broke with the tribal paganism and instituted a strong monotheism based on the oneness of God, Al-Tawhid. It separated the message from the messenger and made sure that only Allah could be worshiped. The absence of clergy meant that there was no spiritual regulation or a spiritual intermediate between a believer and god. Hence, interpretation is very important in Islam. Also, no one could force you to do anything, La Ikraha Fi-Iddin. Furthermore, Jihad is also a key concept because it emphasizes the urge for a Muslim to be self-conscious and to improve everyday (only praying isn’t enough). More practically, Islam brought the five-a-day prayer to Mecca, called by voice. Conversion to Islam was also special because it was only based on personal will.

The Arab Invasion of North Africa

Summary :

In this video, the narrator talks us through the Arab invasion of North Africa, an early but highly important Muslim conquest. Starting in 639 (7 years after Muhammad’s death), the Arab conquest of the Southern Mediterranean region, from the Red Sea to the Atlantic, would bring profound and disruptive changes: new language, customs, traditions, and ways of organizing cities completely alien to Berbes, Greek, and Romans.

It is apparent that Arabs were aware of the Geopolitical tensions of their era. The Eastern Mediterranean region was weakened by the Sassanid-Byzantine war. Arabs were used to form a of « smash and grab » piracy that didn’t come with land expansion. Eventually, they seized on the occasion and started developing a new disciplined military approach using their camels as cavalry.

At that time, the Caliph, Umar ibn Al-Khattab (634–644) known as Al-Farrouq (the one who distinguishes between what is right and wrong), was convinced by Amr ibn Al-As, a Qurayshi trader who knew about the situation in Egypt, to start military attacks on the Sinai region. Ultimately, the Nile would bring important agricultural possibilities for Arabs.

The First Arab invasion which would have never started if ibn Al-As read Umar’s message before crossing the Egyptian border, went on to have three major steps. First, Arabs besieged Pelusium facing no Byzantine confrontation. Then, reinforcements from Umar made possible the fall of Babylon on a nighttime attack. Lastly, Amr negotiated with the Cyrus of Alexandria (imperial and spiritual decider) for its surrender and the implementation of the Jizya tax (for every non-Muslim male). Alexandria was an important naval base and the second city of the Byzantine Empire. But as Syria, Palestine, and Jerusalem already fell into Arab hands, the city was now isolated. Héraclius, who ordered reinforcements in Alexandria, died before his troops started crossing the sea. Coming for the deserts of Arabia, Muslims should have been amazed by the architectural development of Egypt. Fustat was established

as the Capital of Egypt because Alexandria was seen to be vulnerable due to its maritime exposure. Eventually, Amr decided to keep local officials as administrators and asked every peasant to leave or accept the new political reality.

Empowered by prayers from the Coptic Patriarch Benjamin, Amr continued raiding on a big scale, a thousand kilometers to the West until Sabratha in modern Libya. In 647, under the rule of the third Caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan, an army of 10K-20k soldiers launched a campaign of fifteen months in North Africa reaching southern Tunisia and defeating Byzantine forces. Arabs seemed to be satisfied by these early conquests and went back to the « smash and grab » routines.

Under the reign of Mu’awiyah, the first Umayyad Caliph, started the Second Arab Invasion. He decided that Uqba ibn Nafi was the right appointment for this task since he knew more than anyone about the specificities of the Region. In 670, Uqba marched on Qairawan (Caravane) and made it a permanent military base in Ifriqiyah. The Holy City of Qairawan is still a center of learning of the Islamic doctrine. Controlling the center of the North African region, Arabs had a better outlook on their main goal: conquering Al-Maghrib, the West.

It was only in 694, when Muslims raised the army for the third Arab invasion that led to the fall of Byzantine Carthage in 698. Governing new territories from inland strongholds, Arabs saw a huge resistance to their presence from Berbers (from Roman Barbarians) symbolized by Al-Kahina, a famous female figure of opposition to Arab colonizers. When peace prevailed, indigenous people found Muslims to be welcoming (as there were no forced conversions), tolerant, and less demanding than past monarchs. In 710, Arabs took Fes and arrived in Gibraltar (named after the conqueror, Tariq Ibn Ziyad: The Mount of Tariq).70 years after the invasion of Egypt, North Africa became Arab.

After taking Al-Maghrib, Arabs decided to divide the newly conquered territories into three provinces, Egypt (Fustat), Ifriqiyah (Qairawan), and Al-Maghrib (Fes). They ruled indigenous populations living apart from them in military settlements allowing locals to live normally and always preferring inland bases. These garrisons slowly became cities and the occupiers were transformed into settlers.

What does that tell us about Islam and Politics?

The Arab invasion of North Africa shows us how fast the Arab civilization expanded. This was due to a clear geopolitical understanding of the world. Choosing time, place, and how to attack was definitely a feature Arabs relied on. Mastering a new disciplined way to make war was a game-changer. Muslims had to adapt themselves and abandon their « smash and grab » method when needed. It is by making sure that only informed militarians make decisions that Arabs prevailed in North Africa as we saw with Amr in Egypt and Ibn-Nafi in Ifriqiyah. The organization of their military system made possible this fast expansion.

It is also the fact that Arabs were satisfied with locals administrating newly conquered cities which gave them a better grasp of the situation in every new territory. Living apart from indigenous and not being able to own their lands also meant that every aspect of colonized peasants’ lives didn’t change. Thus, it was possible for them to continue their economic activities, on the one hand. On the other, Muslims could then raise taxes to continue expanding their territories.

It is shown that Arabs relied on negotiations and besieging, avoiding armed attacks because this would mean a reduction of the taxable population. Accepting other religions was key to the process of tax raising. Arab invasions are not to be considered as Crusades but as a tax enterprise in the short term and a cultural, linguistic, and religious mission in the long run. They also accepted that notions like Ahl Al-Kitab could evolve, including Berbers, Zoroastrians, etc… to help administer new territories.

Arabs knew that it would take centuries before Northern Africa would become a Muslim and Arab-speaking region. They were also convinced that forcing conversion and Arabization would abort the process. Slowly but surely, while making sure peace was upheld, Arabs brought civilizational change to North Africa which can still be felt today (language, culture, traditions, religion…) and were adopted by the locals and legitimate monarchs, even though they faced huge resistance first. It is fascinating to see that it took Arabs only 70 years to conquer the region but 4 centuries to make it Arab-speaking. Muslims had a profound understanding of how a State should be run for their era.

Muhammad, The Hadith, Al-Bukhari

Summary:

In this lecture, we are introduced to the second most important piece of literature in Islam after the Qur’an, the Hadith. In the Islamic world, a lot of sayings are attributed to Muhammad. For the vast majority of believers, acknowledging the Hadith as legitimate is a matter of faith. For others, especially non-Muslim scholars, authentication can be tricky. Thus, it is known that Al-Bukhari is the most important Hadith collector in Islamic history, assembling the first great corpus named Sahih Al-Bukhari. These texts have a large impact on Muslims because they can be used as references to solve conflicts. At his time, Muhammad was worried that people would confuse his words with the Qur’an. Thus, influence and power were at stakes.

The Hadith is a collection of sayings and actions of Muhammad. They are considered to be a major source of guidance for Muslims. Even though the Qur’an is believed to hold an eternal answer to everything, the emergence of the Hadith expresses the necessity of having a day-to-day structured spiritual reference. Hadith covered various topics such as spiritual rituals (Hajj practices, how to pray…), social guidelines (marriage guidance, funeral arrangements, manumitting, good manners, property and repayment guidelines…), and even individual advice (what makes a strong man, how to control temper, indications for the Greater Jihad, compassion, love…). Nowadays, Al Bukhari’s collection is seen as an important source of Islamic literature, even though some Hadith can be overlooked (violent ones). Historically, they have been used in moments of political tensions by some rulers as Hourani A. attests.

Born in 810 in Bukhara (actual Uzbekistan and on the fringes of the Caliphate at the time), Abu Abdallah Al-Bukhari started studying Hadith at 10. After accomplishing his pilgrimage to Mecca, he stayed in the religious Capital to deepen his knowledge of the prophet’s sayings. He would go on to travel in the Arabian peninsula for 16 years to interview scholars, trying to amass the widest collection of authentic Hadith. In the process, he met with 1080 scholars and was told 600,000 Hadith. This important number can be explained by the long chain of transmission (consisting of 6 generational links) of Hadith that created duplicates.

Furthermore, authenticity is retraced using the names of the teller, which establishes evidence of his lineage and his geographical implementation. Each Hadith is structured in 2 parts: the text and the chain of transmission. It is by identifying a trustworthy chain of transmission that the Hadith could be certified. Only 7500 Hadith (90 chapters) successfully made it through this process. Nonetheless, their authenticity can still be questioned because the standards of authentication of the 9th century weren’t as strong as today’s.

On another note, Sunni and Shi’a worlds don’t agree on the reliability of transmitters. While some of them sided with Abu Bakr and Umar (1st and 2nd Caliphs), others supported Ali (4th Caliph). This leadership dispute affected the recognition of Hadith in both Sunnism and Shiism. Moreover, critics of Hadith exist in and outside Islam. While non-believers express skepticism on the authenticity of Hadith, Quranist Muslims, show complete disregard for any text beyond the Holy book (like Sola scriptura Protestants) and orally transmitted sources. One famous Hadith rejector is the author Al-Jahiz. Even though Hadiths are accepted by most Muslims it is important to question their authenticity.

What does it tell us about Islam and the State?

As seen in precedent lectures, the figure of Muhammad was important to the foundation of an « Islamic Forum ». Accepting everyone in his Mosque, he would solve conflicts and be the main person to refer to when needed. Consequently, his absence meant there was nobody to replace him, even though Caliphs were asked to fulfill the role of Muhammad’s spiritual filiation. Hadith can be seen as an attempt to honor Muhammad’s legacy while making his messages, social constructing, and conflict-solving skills eternal. As Muhammad built a community around chosen values, Hadith continued to spread them, impacting the whole Islamic world (approximately). Hadith is Muhammad’s eternal tongue. The charismatic legitimacy of the Muslim prophet made Hadith a spiritual inevitable reference.

This can be linked to the absence of a Church (as an institution) in Islam. While there is technically no barrier between the believer in his God, there is a corpus of texts (Qur’an and Hadith for instance) each Muslim can refer to, when needed. Through Hadith, Muslims can feel a true material bond to their main Prophet. It is then easier to cement a specific collective imagination of who Muhammad was and how he lived referring to seemingly authentic texts.

We can assert that there was a huge need for additional guidance and the Qur’an itself wasn’t sufficient. Hadith, regulating day-to-day life, filled that void. Thus, it is important to ask ourselves about the motives of Al-Bukhari and if he had an official Institution supporting him in his quest. There was no need for the State to establish severe rules if the Hadith were widely and easily adopted by everyone because everybody wanted to follow Muhammad. While modern states make laws and rules, the Muslim world seemed interested in how people would identify themselves with the values and internalize them.

It is also important to note that Al-Bukhari as other important figures in the Islamic world come from different and remote cities of the Caliphate. This indicates the importance of Muslim scholarship and the importance of knowledge and culture in the development of the Empire.

The Safavid Empire

Born in Ardabil in 1487 from Kurd, Persian, Georgian, Azeri, and Greek origins, Ismail is considered to be the founder of the Modern State of Iran. Very young, he inherited the leadership of the Safaviya Sufi order, a mystical sect (originally Sunni). Ismail claimed to be a descendant of Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali, which is a source of legitimacy in the Shii community. Ali and his descendants are considered the rightful inheritors of Islamic Orthodoxy. Ismail also claimed to be the Mahdi (the rightly guided one and the redeemer of Islam) which subsequently means he was infallible. He wanted to unite the largest Turkik-speaking tribes in the area by using his mixed ethnic background and his bilingual tongue to express his messianic message to multiple tribes. In the region, the Timurid Empire was on the verge of falling, which helped the growing Safavid force. After decisive military successes, Ismail was enthroned Shah in 1501 and then Shahenshah (king of kings). In less than a decade, he conquered the whole of modern-day Iran which encompasses (Georgia, Turkey, Kuwait, Afghanistan…). Ismail would go on to drive a radical shift with regional implications in politics, faith, and power (borders, religion, ideology, worldview…).

While being at the crossroads of civilizations, Sunni Islam prevailed in the Iranian Plateau at the time of Ismail’s rise. He used 2 groups of people to grow his influence: the nomadic Turkic warrior class, known as the Qizilbash (or redheaded in Ottoman regarding their distinctive gear), and the settled Persian Bureaucrats. His reign stood on the importance of having men of the Sword and the Pen, which was an image of his personality, being himself an emotional poet and a rough soldier. Even though both of the groups viewed one another suspiciously, Ismail was able to make them reliable and loyal to him.

On one hand, he adopted, from the nomadic tribes, the notion of meritocracy (ruled by the best) in his reign and went on to emphasize the importance of « Persianess ». He invited all Shia in the world to settle in Persia, especially clerics to whom he gave incentives and accorded a huge political role. His goal was to set apart his empire from Sunni powers (Ottomans and Uzbecs) that might challenge him. By making his peasants and followers Persians (Non-Turkic) and Shia (Non-Sunni), he cemented the loyalty of his subjects.

Also, he wanted to overturn centuries of Sunni Islamic Traditions while imposing his messianic vision of Shia Islam by making Shia Islam the state religion. Today, if Iran is viewed as the center of Twelver Shia Islam, it is because of Ismail’s proselyte efforts. He ordered the conversion of all Sunni Mosques to Shia, the desecration of their graves, the reading of curses on the first 3 Caliphs, considered imposters, and their persecution. The founder of modern State Iran, reintroduced the role of traditional religious leaders (Sadr) in supervising Mosques and schools, making sure they stood on the Twelver Doctrine line.

To maintain social stability, Ismail needed a plan to maintain the stability between men of the pen and the sword. The Qizilbash were aware of their status as king-makers. In consequence, Ismail named Persian advisors to control troops and to counterweight the Turkic influence on the military. 3 of the 5 men appointed were killed by Qizilbash. This failure was a presage of the defeat of Chaldiran against the Ottomans in 1514, which meant that Ismail’s divine aura vanished, being indeed fallible. Seeing the Safavid as a growing threat in the region, the Ottoman Empire used artillery to defeat Safavid’s cavalry. After this defeat and a poetic exchange with Sultan Selim The Grim, Ismail retired from public life.

Even though traditional tribal divisions resurfaced during Ismail’s decade-long retreat, this defeat would make the Safavid Empire learn from their mistake. After facing a civil war, his son would foster a military revolution with the introduction of artillery (which made them part of the 3 Muslim gunpowder empires with the Mughals and the Ottomans) and the implementation of the Ghulams, a military force (composed from non-Turkic and non-Persian Christian slaves converted to Islam) similar to the Janissaries that pledged allegiance to the Shah. This institution was useful to counterweight the Qizilbash this time.

Until their fall in 1736, the Safavids continued establishing a bureaucratic framework for Iran and made the region the cradle of Shia Islam. Their use of diplomacy with the Ottomans benefited both empires, being at the intersection of trade routes. They are also considered as architectural innovators with Shah Abbas moving the capital to Isfahan (nicknamed « Half of the World ») and starting an important building program. In 10 years, Ismail and the Safavid revived and unified a disappearing Persian Empire (they were the first to rule the Persian heartland since the Muslims 850 years earlier) and went on to set the foundations of « Persianess » and the framework of a new Shia center of power that remains to some extent.

What does this tell us about Islam and the State?

From this lecture, we disseminate the importance of uniting tribes to build a State. Like Muhammad, Ismail broke up with the tribal spirit to build a solid set of institutions. He used his mixed origins to gather people from different ethnicities and religions around his personality. He went on to cement the notion of « Persianess » and massively converted his population to Shia Islam (which was predominantly Sunni). While the region was ruled by Sunni empires, his peasants had certain criteria distinguishing them from other groups. Consequently, they stayed loyal to him. Shia Islam is a social construct brought up to foster a new group. Surpassing the notion of State, Ismail wanted to create a Nation.

By preaching his messianic vision and claiming he was a descendant of Ali and the Mahdi (rightly guided one) he secured himself a strong charismatic and divine legitimacy. He also made sure that the religious centers of power were in check. By reintroducing the role of the Sadr (traditional religious leaders) and giving a growing political power to clerics, while being Al-Mahdi, he was able to have religious institutions by his side. A truly legitimate power can have other institutions (like religious or military) support its reign. Hence, Ismail had political and religious legitimacy and controlled every actor in the society which resembles what Muawiya, one of the Caliphs he ordered to pronounce curses on each Friday.

By making meritocracy (a nomadic trait) an important feature of his regime, he made sure that nobody would take his position for granted. Thus, he also kept nobles in check. Establishing a solid bureaucracy also meant that the Safavid had a more or less precise administrative framework, essential to building a solid state. Subsequently, Ismail’s claims of being appointed by divine sanction weren’t addressed to the peasants but to the administration, which pledged allegiance to the self-proclaimed Al-Mahdi.

Throughout failures and lost wars, the Safavid Empire learned to evolve. Ismail’s son did what his father failed to do: he found a counterweight to Qizilbash predominance by establishing the Ghulams, which are the equivalent of a Presidential Guard. The defeat against the Ottoman also meant the introduction of cannons to the military. Being at the

center of trade routes, the use of diplomacy was also very important for the empire. Thus, the state continuously evolved through accomplishments and defeats.

Crusaders capture Jerusalem

Summary:

The city of Jerusalem is one of the first urban centers in the world. It has been destroyed twice, besieged 24 times, attacked 50 times… Crucially, the City of Peace is important for the religions of the Book. For the 14 first years of Islam, faithful prayed towards it. Arabs would control it between 637 and 1099, date of the end of the 1st Crusade. Eventually, Jews were allowed again in the City after Hadrian banned them in 136 AD.

On one hand, before the 16th century, Islam was known in Europe as Muhammadism (as for the worship of Muhammad) and its faithfuls as the Saracens (nomads of the Syrian and Arabian deserts). On the other hand, Arabic authors referred to Europeans as Franks (after the Germanic tribes). This shows that there was mutual ignorance, potentially leading to fear. Nonetheless, in Western Europe, Muslims and Christians were already linked because of the Almoravids incursion in the Iberian Peninsula. During the 11th century, the Reconquista was taking place. While it had a religious importance and can be seen as a training ground for what is incoming, it was not a Crusade. In the past centuries, Europe was gradually being christianized but anarchy raged since the Carolingian Empire was falling apart. In 1054, the Great Schism occurred between the Roman Western Empire and Orthodox Eastern Byzantine Empire. Some historians claim that the Crusade came to impose Rome’s authority over the Byzantine Empire, which was living hard times and losing territory.

At that time, a rising Islamic force in the East was the Seljuk Empire. They would go on to capture Baghdad in 1055 and invade the Byzantine Empire in the 12th Century. In the century leading to the 1st Crusade, Jerusalem went back and forth between the hands of Seljuk and those of the Fatimids. The Seljuk reign was characterized by its intolerance against the Jews and the Christians who would find refuge in Europe where tales of misery and mayhem in Jerusalem surfaced.

In 1095, Pope Urban II declared the Crusade. Some of the main reasons were to save the Christians suffering from Seljuks, ceasing on the growing tension in the region to make easy conquests and send the restless warriors causing trouble in Europe to fight against the enemy instead of waging private wars, while they were being promised salvation, getting richer and adventure. Meanwhile, Jerusalem was recaptured by the Shia Fatimids in 1098. Some historians also indicate that overpopulation, bad harvests and colonization temptations were the root causes for the call to arms. In the meantime, Fatimids were happy with Crusaders invading the Seljuk Empire but their opinion shifted when the Christians headed towards Jerusalem. Temporary alliances were made between Crusaders and Fatimids against other Muslims and between Crusaders and Muslims against other Crusaders which indicates how complexe the situation was politically.

In the starting phases, the Crusaders didn’t count on large troops. On their route to the Middle East, they attacked Jewish populations and recruited untrained peasants from villages (around 100k). While the Christians expected Alexios (Byzantine Emperor) to help

them, he couldn’t care less of their enterprise, especially that some of the princes asking for his help waged war on him in the past. When the Crusaders invaded the Seljuk Empire, the Fatimids started preparing themself to war. They expelled the Christian Orthodox living in Jerusalem because they feared that they would fight against them. the Gesta that they were 20k-strong. They also faced harsh conditions in Jerusalem and divisions arose in their ranks. Even though Fatimids would send reinforcements from Cairo, Crusaders would go on to produce a horrible carnage. Ibn Al-Athir mentions the same details as the Gesta and explains the Muslim loss by a discord in their ranks.

After their victory, Crusaders put some thousands Muslims to the sword and Godfrey of Bouillon took the leadership of Jerusalem and became the Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. He didn’t accept to be called king and wear a crown in gold saying because « in this city, his savior wore a crown of thorns ». He successfully defended his territory before letting his brother become the 1st king of Jerusalem. He remained a legendary figure (part of the 9 worthies) and a man who reached greatness due to the Crusade (he would never have been this great without this adventure). 3 other Crusaders states emerged : Antioch, Tripoli and Edessa. The Crusade would have a large impact on Europe. It is important to consider that all Crusades aren’t to be seen as a package because they had all different goals and contexts. Western cities like Genoa developed in this era because of trade with the Middle East. Moreover, this event influenced how Arabs described Europeans in medieval chronicles : inferior ignorant savages. Eventually, the Christian rule of the holy city ended in 1187.

What do we learn about Islam and Politics ?

This lecture shows us that the control of Jerusalem was very important to both Christians and Muslims. Indeed, to be powerful, you have to control religious centers. The dhimmi status helped the Muslims control these disputed territories while tolerating the presence of other faithfuls from religions of the Book. This status meant that Muslims could tax non-fighting, non-Muslim populations while maintaining stability and peace. This was indeed important for trade.

It is also important to know that not all Muslims were always on the same page and that fitna occurred several times. While being both Muslim empires, the Seljuk and Fatimids were both battling for Jerusalem before they started losing territories to the Crusaders.

Eventually, this Crusade would deeply influence how Muslims and Arabs see Christians: brutal and savage ignorants

The fall of the Last Caliphate

Summary:

In 1924, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, an army officer who would become the first President of the Republic of Turkey, abolished the Ottoman Caliphate after ending the Ottoman Empire, two years earlier. Both events are separated by this short spell because a civil war might have sparked. This marks the first time in 1300 years that the Islamic world had no Caliphate, a Sunni institution leading all Muslims around the globe (even though there was a Shia Caliphate, the Cairo-based Fatimids). This institution was feared everywhere on the planet because it had the power to declare the Minor Jihad, a general call to arms amongst Muslims. However, the rise of Arab nationalism and the decline of the power of the Ottoman Empire led to the reconsideration of the balance of power, as the Middle East was set to experience a complete remapping.

After Muhammad died in 632, the Rashidun Caliphate took place, consisting of 4 men (political and religious guides) succession for 29 years. Then, came the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus, which lasted around 90 years (661–750). It was under the rule of the Umayyad that Arabs saw the greatest expansion of their territory. Uprisings at the end of this year led us to the Abbasid Caliphate and the glorious city of Baghdad (750–1258) that would be destroyed by the Mongols. The Caliphate was reborn in Mamluk Cairo under the same name only to fall in 1517 in the hands of the Ottoman, where the Sultan declared himself Caliph for 400 years.

After the Treaty of Versailles forced the Germans to accept the Diktat in 1919, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed by the Ottoman Government as they were on the losing side. Constantinople was to become a demilitarized zone and huge parts of Anatolia were to be carved for the benefit of the winners. Some historians see the terms as what led to the snuffling of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, the Treaty was never ratified. Turkish nationalists saw it as unacceptable. After being a belligerent in the Italo-Turkish war in North Africa (1911), the Balkan War (1912–1913), and WWI (14–18), the Ottoman Empire experienced the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922) leading to the emergence of the Grand National Assembly led by Ataturk, to pursue discussions with the winning Allies. In 1923, they agreed on the Treaty of Lausanne instead of the initial one. In October 1923, the Republic of Turkey was created. There were some discussions in the Islamic world to establish a new Caliphate, but none of the candidates was able to form a consensus (for instance, King Hussein of the Hijaz was dismissed because of his proximity with the Brits and Indian Nationalists were against that).

In 1919, President Wilson led the creation of the League of Nations (ancestor of the United Nations). This international institution would assign mandates (A which was the grade attributed to the Ottoman territories, B, C) to the territories abandoned by the WWI losers. Thus, this led to Great Britain and France having their way with the Middle East. They would administratively control these territories until they would be able to manage themselves. While Britain took Palestine and Transjordan, France was granted Syria and Lebanon. David Fromkin would describe this situation as « A peace to end all peace ».In 6 centuries of Ottoman rule, the world would shift from a conglomerate of Kingdoms and Principalities to a political landscape dominated by Republics.

We need to keep in mind that the past informs the present and that differences matter. The mayhem in the Middle East can be explained by the fact that most states in this region were formed after WWI and given independence after WWI. For instance, the American Civil War (600K dead) only began 85 years after the US declared independence from Britain. All these young states are facing normal and historically probable periods of gestation. Thus, the chaos is amplified by Western interventions. It is vital to not take for granted lessons we learn from ancient times and to consider the past as rubbing shoulders with the present. When asked, Saudi Arabians all want more freedom and representation. The last descendant of the Ottomans was also happy with the end of the Sultanate and said that the emergence of a non-governing Caliphate could be beneficial for the Unity of Islam.

What do we learn about Islam and Politics?

From this lecture, we see how important the notion of Caliphate is to the Muslim world. Being the only institution capable of launching minor Jihad, the Caliphate was for 1300 years

a symbol of unity for Muslims. Thus, the Caliph is much more than a spiritual guide. He is also a political leader. With the absence of a Caliph, other civilizations have (technically) no fear of an Islamic attack.

We can also suggest that the Sultan being himself the Caliph starting from 1517 was a factor of strong unity in the Ottoman Empire consolidating the power of the regime. This feature led the Ottoman Empire to expand and keep a strong grip on different ethnic groups which were only united by faith. The Caliphate is indeed a powerful political tool that helped the Ottoman Empire foster a centralized state. We can assume that this is what led to the Ottoman provinces being given an A mandate from the League of Nations. This showcases the degree of development of the Ottoman administration and bureaucracy (and thus the structure of the State) in comparison with other territories. As the Ottoman Empire saw a decline in power, the Caliphate (as an institution) wasn’t able anymore to mobilize people to wage war (as we saw, declarations of a Jihad weren’t followed by a mobilization). The State has to give reasons for peasants to fight for it.

Before being a region where mayhem reigned, the Middle East was governed by a structured regime and a centralized state that understood what it takes to control the region. This perfectly echoes the anecdote at the end of the lecture: « Trust in God but tight your camel ». As important as faith was to maintain the Ottoman Empire, having a structured administration and a centralized state (or tying the camel) was also key to these centuries of domination.

It is also interesting to question the position of Islam in Republics. Arab nationalism considered the arabness above the Muslim Caliphate. Moreover, in comparison with a Caliphate (being a very demanding project), a Republic is far easier to put in place. Following this Western organization of a State, it was indeed important for Republican regimes to be secular to continue developing. But can we, someday, see the development of a non-governing Caliphate?

Nonetheless, it is difficult to imagine the emergence of a non-governing Caliphate. Even though its main role would be to unite Muslims, it would probably converge to being a useless organization like the United Nations. As we learned in this lecture, a Caliphate is important because it is both a religious and a political institution.